Why Smart People Fall for Scams
Main concepts: Authority bias, urgency, social proof, commitment and consistency. Key takeaway: scams exploit predictable decision shortcuts, not a lack of intelligence.
WHY SMART PEOPLE FALL FOR SCAMS
When we hear about someone losing thousands of dollars to a scam, our first reaction is often, "I would never fall for that." We tend to imagine scam victims as careless, uninformed, or overly trusting. Yet real victims include doctors, lawyers, engineers, professors, and even cybersecurity professionals. Intelligence alone is not enough to protect us.
The reason is surprisingly simple: scammers are not trying to outsmart us, they are trying to manipulate the way our brains naturally make decisions.
Every day, our brains rely on mental shortcuts called heuristics. These shortcuts help us make quick decisions without analysing every piece of information around us. Most of the time they are incredibly useful. They allow us to trust professionals, respond quickly in emergencies, and navigate everyday life efficiently. However, the same shortcuts that normally help us can also become vulnerabilities when someone deliberately exploits them.
Understanding these psychological processes does not guarantee that we will never be deceived, but it does make us far better at recognising manipulation before it succeeds.
THE PSYCHOLOGY
Authority Bias
Imagine receiving a phone call from someone claiming to be your bank. They know your name, speak confidently, and explain that your account has been compromised. Even before checking whether the information is true, many people instinctively trust the caller.
This response is an example of authority bias our tendency to place greater trust in individuals or organisations that appear knowledgeable, experienced, or legitimate. Throughout history, relying on trusted authorities such as doctors, teachers, or government institutions has often helped people make safe and informed decisions. As a result, our brains naturally associate authority with credibility.²
Modern scammers deliberately imitate this appearance of authority through official logos, professional language, convincing uniforms, or government-sounding titles. Rather than questioning the information, victims are more likely to comply because the source appears trustworthy. Recent research on phishing and social engineering has found that authority cues remain one of the most effective methods for manipulating victims into following fraudulent instructions.³
Milgram (1963): Obedience to Authority
Stanley Milgram demonstrated that people are surprisingly willing to comply with instructions from a perceived authority figure, even when those instructions conflicted with their own judgement. Although the study was not about scams, it revealed just how powerful perceived authority can be a principle still exploited in modern fraud.
Urgency
Scammers also understand that people make poorer decisions when they feel under pressure.
Messages such as "Your account will be suspended within 30 minutes," "Immediate payment required," or "Act now to avoid losing access" are designed to trigger anxiety before people have time to think critically.
Psychologist Daniel Kahneman explains that under pressure, people often rely on fast, intuitive thinking rather than slower, more analytical reasoning.¹ Instead of carefully evaluating the evidence, our attention shifts towards solving the immediate problem. Recent cyberpsychology research similarly suggests that attackers intentionally create time pressure because urgency reduces critical evaluation and increases the likelihood of impulsive decisions.³
Kahneman (2011): Fast and Slow Thinking
Kahneman proposes that our brains use two systems of thinking. System 1 is fast, intuitive, and automatic, while System 2 is slower and more analytical. Scammers attempt to keep victims in System 1 by creating emotional pressure and a false sense of urgency.
Scarcity
Have you ever seen advertisements claiming "Only three places remaining," "Offer ends tonight," or "Exclusive opportunity"?
These messages exploit the psychological principle of scarcity. People naturally perceive opportunities as more valuable when they appear limited because scarce resources have historically been associated with survival and competition.²
Scammers frequently combine scarcity with urgency, creating the impression that both the opportunity and the time available to respond are disappearing. This combination encourages emotional decision-making while reducing careful evaluation of whether the offer is genuine. Recent research on persuasion strategies used in phishing campaigns continues to identify scarcity as one of the most effective methods for increasing user compliance.⁴
Cialdini's Principle of Scarcity
Robert Cialdini found that people consistently assign greater value to opportunities that appear limited or exclusive. Rather than increasing the quality of an offer, scarcity changes how our brains perceive its importance.
Commitment and Consistency
Perhaps the most subtle strategy scammers use is exploiting our desire to remain consistent with our previous actions.
Rarely do scammers begin by asking for money. Instead, they start with small, seemingly harmless requests:
"Can you confirm your name?"
"Could you verify your address?"
"Can you log into your account so we can confirm your identity?"
Each request appears reasonable on its own. However, after agreeing several times, people often feel psychologically inclined to continue cooperating because remaining consistent with previous actions feels easier than suddenly refusing. By gradually increasing the size of each request, scammers make large demands appear like a natural continuation of the conversation rather than an obvious warning sign. This gradual escalation is a well-documented persuasion strategy that continues to be observed in modern social engineering attacks.⁴
Cialdini's Principle of Commitment and Consistency
Once people commit to a course of action even in a small way they are more likely to continue behaving consistently with that commitment. Scammers exploit this tendency by slowly escalating their requests instead of asking for sensitive information immediately.
Psychology in Action
Although scams vary in appearance, they often manipulate the same sequence of thoughts and emotions. Victims rarely ignore obvious warning signs because they are unintelligent. Instead, scammers subtly shift attention away from asking "Is this genuine?" towards solving what appears to be an immediate problem. Looking at scams from the victim's perspective helps explain why even cautious and highly educated individuals can be deceived.
"I need to protect my account."
You receive an email that appears to be from your bank.
"Suspicious activity has been detected. Your account will be frozen within 30 minutes unless you verify your identity."
The email contains the bank's logo, uses professional language, and includes a link to what looks like the official website.
At this point, most people are not thinking, "Could this be a scam?" Instead, their attention shifts almost immediately to protecting their money. The possibility of losing access to their account becomes far more important than verifying whether the message is authentic.
This shift in thinking is exactly what scammers want. The appearance of authority makes the email seem credible, while the time pressure encourages quick, intuitive decisions instead of careful evaluation. By the time the victim clicks the link, the psychological manipulation has already succeeded.
"I've invested too much to walk away."
Romance scams work very differently. Rather than creating urgency, they create trust.
A scammer may spend weeks or even months talking to someone every day, remembering personal details, offering emotional support, and gradually becoming part of the victim's daily routine. During this stage, there are usually no requests for money.
Only after a strong relationship has developed does the scammer introduce a financial emergency.
From the outside, it can seem obvious that something is wrong. From the victim's perspective, however, they are no longer making a financial decision they are trying to help someone they believe they know and care about.
Walking away also becomes psychologically difficult. Doing so would mean questioning months of conversations and emotional investment. Rather than admitting they may have been deceived, many people continue to trust the scammer, making increasingly larger commitments over time.
"What if I miss the opportunity?"
Scrolling through social media, you come across an advertisement offering a pair of popular trainers for 70% off.
Only two pairs remaining.
Over 5,000 happy customers.
Sale ends tonight.
Instead of asking whether the website is trustworthy, many shoppers immediately begin calculating something else:
"If I don't buy this now, someone else probably will."
The decision quickly becomes about avoiding the loss of a seemingly valuable opportunity rather than carefully evaluating the evidence. Scarcity creates the fear of missing out, while hundreds of positive reviews provide reassurance that other people have already made the purchase. Together, these cues make the decision feel both urgent and safe, even when the website itself may be fraudulent.
The Common Pattern
Although these scams appear very different on the surface, they all manipulate the same psychological process.
Rather than encouraging people to ask, "Is this trustworthy?" they redirect attention towards a different question:
Bank scam: "How do I protect my money?"
Romance scam: "How do I help someone I care about?"
Fake sale: "How do I avoid missing out?"
Once our attention shifts towards solving these problems, we naturally become less likely to stop and critically evaluate whether the situation itself is genuine. Understanding this shift in thinking is one of the most effective ways to recognise manipulation before it succeeds.
Putting Psychology into Practice
Understanding why scams work is only half the battle. The real benefit comes from recognising these psychological techniques while they are happening. Rather than trying to memorise every type of scam, it is far more useful to understand the mental shortcuts scammers exploit. The following strategies are designed to interrupt these psychological processes before they influence your decisions.
1. Pause Before You Respond
Scammers want you to react immediately. Whether they claim your bank account will be suspended or insist that a limited-time offer is about to disappear, urgency only works if you feel there is no time to think.
Instead of responding straight away, deliberately pause for a few minutes. Taking a short break allows your emotions to settle and gives your brain time to move from an automatic reaction to a more thoughtful evaluation. What initially felt like an emergency often appears much less convincing once the immediate pressure has faded.
Psychology Behind It
Urgency encourages us to rely on fast, intuitive thinking rather than slower, analytical reasoning. Simply creating a pause interrupts this process and gives System 2—our more deliberate mode of thinking—a chance to evaluate the situation more carefully.¹ Recent research also suggests that social engineering attacks deliberately create time pressure because it reduces critical evaluation and increases impulsive decision-making.³
2. Verify Information Independently
Never rely on the contact details provided in a suspicious email, text message, or phone call.
If someone claims to represent your bank, end the conversation and contact the organisation using the phone number or website listed on its official webpage. Similarly, avoid clicking links in unexpected emails and instead navigate directly to the company's official website.
This simple habit prevents scammers from controlling your source of information and allows you to verify whether their claims are genuine.
Psychology Behind It
Authority bias makes us more likely to trust organisations that appear official. Verifying information through an independent source prevents scammers from exploiting this psychological shortcut and allows you to evaluate the situation more objectively.² Modern phishing research has found that authority cues remain one of the most effective persuasion techniques used in fraudulent emails.⁴
3. Pay Attention to Your Emotions
Before responding to any unexpected request, take a moment to ask yourself:
Am I feeling unusually anxious?
Do I feel pressured to act immediately?
Am I afraid of losing something?
Am I excited by an opportunity that seems too good to be true?
Strong emotions often narrow our attention, making us focus on solving the immediate problem rather than questioning whether the situation itself is genuine.
Recognising your emotional state can act as an early warning sign that someone may be attempting to influence your judgement.
Psychology Behind It
Fear, excitement, and anxiety encourage fast, intuitive decision-making rather than careful analysis.¹ Modern studies of social engineering similarly show that attackers deliberately trigger emotional responses because heightened emotion reduces critical evaluation and increase the likelihood of compliance.³
4. Ask Someone Else
Scams are often designed to isolate victims by encouraging secrecy or insisting that a decision must be made immediately. Discussing the situation with a trusted friend, family member, or colleague introduces a fresh perspective that is not influenced by the same emotional pressure.
A second opinion may reveal inconsistencies, unusual requests, or warning signs that are difficult to recognise when you are personally involved. Even a brief conversation can be enough to prevent an impulsive decision.
Psychology Behind It
Emotional pressure affects the person directly involved in the situation. Someone who is not experiencing the same fear or urgency is more likely to evaluate the information objectively and identify suspicious behaviour.³
5. Focus on Behaviour, Not Appearance
Professional logos, polished websites, convincing emails, and confident phone calls can all be copied. Rather than asking yourself whether something looks legitimate, focus on how the organisation is behaving.
Legitimate organisations rarely demand immediate payment through text messages, threaten account closure without warning, discourage independent verification, or pressure customers into making immediate decisions. If someone attempts to stop you from checking their claims, treat that behaviour as a warning sign rather than evidence that the situation is genuinely urgent.
Psychology Behind It
Scammers rely on superficial cues such as authority, professionalism, urgency, and social proof to create credibility. Evaluating behaviour instead of appearance reduces the influence of these persuasive techniques and encourages more deliberate decision-making.²⁴
The Most Powerful Defence
No one is completely immune to scams. Intelligence, education, and experience do not eliminate the psychological shortcuts that help us navigate everyday life. However, understanding how these shortcuts work makes them much easier to recognise.
The goal is not to become suspicious of everyone it is to become aware of when someone may be deliberately influencing the way you think. By slowing down, verifying information independently, recognising emotional pressure, and understanding the psychology behind persuasion, you become far less vulnerable to manipulation and far more confident in your own decision-making.
References:
1.Krämer, Walter. “Kahneman, D. (2011): Thinking, Fast and Slow.” Statistical Papers, vol. 55, no. 3, May 2013, p. 915. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00362-013-0533-y.
2. Cialdini, R. B. (2021). Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion (New and Expanded ed.). Harper Business.
3. Boewles, Joseph E. “Sifat-sifat Fisis Dan Geoteknis Tanah (Mekanika Tanah) / Joseph E. Bowles ; Alih Bahasa Johan Kelanaputra Hainim ; Editor Yani Sianipar.” Frontiers in Psychology, vol. 1993, no. 1993, Jan. 1993, pp. 1–99. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01755.
4. Yao, Y., Zheng, K., Wu, B., Wu, C., Gao, J., Wang, J., & Yang, M. (2025). The Psychological Manipulation of Phishing Emails: A Cognitive Bias approach. Computers, Materials & Continua/Computers, Materials & Continua (Print), 85(3), 4753–4776. https://doi.org/10.32604/cmc.2025.065059
WHY SMART PEOPLE FALL FOR SCAMS
When we hear about someone losing thousands of dollars to a scam, our first reaction is often, "I would never fall for that." We tend to imagine scam victims as careless, uninformed, or overly trusting. Yet real victims include doctors, lawyers, engineers, professors, and even cybersecurity professionals. Intelligence alone is not enough to protect us.
The reason is surprisingly simple: scammers are not trying to outsmart us, they are trying to manipulate the way our brains naturally make decisions.
Every day, our brains rely on mental shortcuts called heuristics. These shortcuts help us make quick decisions without analysing every piece of information around us. Most of the time they are incredibly useful. They allow us to trust professionals, respond quickly in emergencies, and navigate everyday life efficiently. However, the same shortcuts that normally help us can also become vulnerabilities when someone deliberately exploits them.
Understanding these psychological processes does not guarantee that we will never be deceived, but it does make us far better at recognising manipulation before it succeeds.
THE PSYCHOLOGY
Authority Bias
Imagine receiving a phone call from someone claiming to be your bank. They know your name, speak confidently, and explain that your account has been compromised. Even before checking whether the information is true, many people instinctively trust the caller.
This response is an example of authority bias our tendency to place greater trust in individuals or organisations that appear knowledgeable, experienced, or legitimate. Throughout history, relying on trusted authorities such as doctors, teachers, or government institutions has often helped people make safe and informed decisions. As a result, our brains naturally associate authority with credibility.²
Modern scammers deliberately imitate this appearance of authority through official logos, professional language, convincing uniforms, or government-sounding titles. Rather than questioning the information, victims are more likely to comply because the source appears trustworthy. Recent research on phishing and social engineering has found that authority cues remain one of the most effective methods for manipulating victims into following fraudulent instructions.³
Milgram (1963): Obedience to Authority
Stanley Milgram demonstrated that people are surprisingly willing to comply with instructions from a perceived authority figure, even when those instructions conflicted with their own judgement. Although the study was not about scams, it revealed just how powerful perceived authority can be a principle still exploited in modern fraud.
Urgency
Scammers also understand that people make poorer decisions when they feel under pressure.
Messages such as "Your account will be suspended within 30 minutes," "Immediate payment required," or "Act now to avoid losing access" are designed to trigger anxiety before people have time to think critically.
Psychologist Daniel Kahneman explains that under pressure, people often rely on fast, intuitive thinking rather than slower, more analytical reasoning.¹ Instead of carefully evaluating the evidence, our attention shifts towards solving the immediate problem. Recent cyberpsychology research similarly suggests that attackers intentionally create time pressure because urgency reduces critical evaluation and increases the likelihood of impulsive decisions.³
Kahneman (2011): Fast and Slow Thinking
Kahneman proposes that our brains use two systems of thinking. System 1 is fast, intuitive, and automatic, while System 2 is slower and more analytical. Scammers attempt to keep victims in System 1 by creating emotional pressure and a false sense of urgency.
Scarcity
Have you ever seen advertisements claiming "Only three places remaining," "Offer ends tonight," or "Exclusive opportunity"?
These messages exploit the psychological principle of scarcity. People naturally perceive opportunities as more valuable when they appear limited because scarce resources have historically been associated with survival and competition.²
Scammers frequently combine scarcity with urgency, creating the impression that both the opportunity and the time available to respond are disappearing. This combination encourages emotional decision-making while reducing careful evaluation of whether the offer is genuine. Recent research on persuasion strategies used in phishing campaigns continues to identify scarcity as one of the most effective methods for increasing user compliance.⁴
Cialdini's Principle of Scarcity
Robert Cialdini found that people consistently assign greater value to opportunities that appear limited or exclusive. Rather than increasing the quality of an offer, scarcity changes how our brains perceive its importance.
Commitment and Consistency
Perhaps the most subtle strategy scammers use is exploiting our desire to remain consistent with our previous actions.
Rarely do scammers begin by asking for money. Instead, they start with small, seemingly harmless requests:
"Can you confirm your name?"
"Could you verify your address?"
"Can you log into your account so we can confirm your identity?"
Each request appears reasonable on its own. However, after agreeing several times, people often feel psychologically inclined to continue cooperating because remaining consistent with previous actions feels easier than suddenly refusing. By gradually increasing the size of each request, scammers make large demands appear like a natural continuation of the conversation rather than an obvious warning sign. This gradual escalation is a well-documented persuasion strategy that continues to be observed in modern social engineering attacks.⁴
Cialdini's Principle of Commitment and Consistency
Once people commit to a course of action even in a small way they are more likely to continue behaving consistently with that commitment. Scammers exploit this tendency by slowly escalating their requests instead of asking for sensitive information immediately.
Psychology in Action
Although scams vary in appearance, they often manipulate the same sequence of thoughts and emotions. Victims rarely ignore obvious warning signs because they are unintelligent. Instead, scammers subtly shift attention away from asking "Is this genuine?" towards solving what appears to be an immediate problem. Looking at scams from the victim's perspective helps explain why even cautious and highly educated individuals can be deceived.
"I need to protect my account."
You receive an email that appears to be from your bank.
"Suspicious activity has been detected. Your account will be frozen within 30 minutes unless you verify your identity."
The email contains the bank's logo, uses professional language, and includes a link to what looks like the official website.
At this point, most people are not thinking, "Could this be a scam?" Instead, their attention shifts almost immediately to protecting their money. The possibility of losing access to their account becomes far more important than verifying whether the message is authentic.
This shift in thinking is exactly what scammers want. The appearance of authority makes the email seem credible, while the time pressure encourages quick, intuitive decisions instead of careful evaluation. By the time the victim clicks the link, the psychological manipulation has already succeeded.
"I've invested too much to walk away."
Romance scams work very differently. Rather than creating urgency, they create trust.
A scammer may spend weeks or even months talking to someone every day, remembering personal details, offering emotional support, and gradually becoming part of the victim's daily routine. During this stage, there are usually no requests for money.
Only after a strong relationship has developed does the scammer introduce a financial emergency.
From the outside, it can seem obvious that something is wrong. From the victim's perspective, however, they are no longer making a financial decision they are trying to help someone they believe they know and care about.
Walking away also becomes psychologically difficult. Doing so would mean questioning months of conversations and emotional investment. Rather than admitting they may have been deceived, many people continue to trust the scammer, making increasingly larger commitments over time.
"What if I miss the opportunity?"
Scrolling through social media, you come across an advertisement offering a pair of popular trainers for 70% off.
Only two pairs remaining.
Over 5,000 happy customers.
Sale ends tonight.
Instead of asking whether the website is trustworthy, many shoppers immediately begin calculating something else:
"If I don't buy this now, someone else probably will."
The decision quickly becomes about avoiding the loss of a seemingly valuable opportunity rather than carefully evaluating the evidence. Scarcity creates the fear of missing out, while hundreds of positive reviews provide reassurance that other people have already made the purchase. Together, these cues make the decision feel both urgent and safe, even when the website itself may be fraudulent.
The Common Pattern
Although these scams appear very different on the surface, they all manipulate the same psychological process.
Rather than encouraging people to ask, "Is this trustworthy?" they redirect attention towards a different question:
Bank scam: "How do I protect my money?"
Romance scam: "How do I help someone I care about?"
Fake sale: "How do I avoid missing out?"
Once our attention shifts towards solving these problems, we naturally become less likely to stop and critically evaluate whether the situation itself is genuine. Understanding this shift in thinking is one of the most effective ways to recognise manipulation before it succeeds.
Putting Psychology into Practice
Understanding why scams work is only half the battle. The real benefit comes from recognising these psychological techniques while they are happening. Rather than trying to memorise every type of scam, it is far more useful to understand the mental shortcuts scammers exploit. The following strategies are designed to interrupt these psychological processes before they influence your decisions.
1. Pause Before You Respond
Scammers want you to react immediately. Whether they claim your bank account will be suspended or insist that a limited-time offer is about to disappear, urgency only works if you feel there is no time to think.
Instead of responding straight away, deliberately pause for a few minutes. Taking a short break allows your emotions to settle and gives your brain time to move from an automatic reaction to a more thoughtful evaluation. What initially felt like an emergency often appears much less convincing once the immediate pressure has faded.
Psychology Behind It
Urgency encourages us to rely on fast, intuitive thinking rather than slower, analytical reasoning. Simply creating a pause interrupts this process and gives System 2—our more deliberate mode of thinking—a chance to evaluate the situation more carefully.¹ Recent research also suggests that social engineering attacks deliberately create time pressure because it reduces critical evaluation and increases impulsive decision-making.³
2. Verify Information Independently
Never rely on the contact details provided in a suspicious email, text message, or phone call.
If someone claims to represent your bank, end the conversation and contact the organisation using the phone number or website listed on its official webpage. Similarly, avoid clicking links in unexpected emails and instead navigate directly to the company's official website.
This simple habit prevents scammers from controlling your source of information and allows you to verify whether their claims are genuine.
Psychology Behind It
Authority bias makes us more likely to trust organisations that appear official. Verifying information through an independent source prevents scammers from exploiting this psychological shortcut and allows you to evaluate the situation more objectively.² Modern phishing research has found that authority cues remain one of the most effective persuasion techniques used in fraudulent emails.⁴
3. Pay Attention to Your Emotions
Before responding to any unexpected request, take a moment to ask yourself:
Am I feeling unusually anxious?
Do I feel pressured to act immediately?
Am I afraid of losing something?
Am I excited by an opportunity that seems too good to be true?
Strong emotions often narrow our attention, making us focus on solving the immediate problem rather than questioning whether the situation itself is genuine.
Recognising your emotional state can act as an early warning sign that someone may be attempting to influence your judgement.
Psychology Behind It
Fear, excitement, and anxiety encourage fast, intuitive decision-making rather than careful analysis.¹ Modern studies of social engineering similarly show that attackers deliberately trigger emotional responses because heightened emotion reduces critical evaluation and increase the likelihood of compliance.³
4. Ask Someone Else
Scams are often designed to isolate victims by encouraging secrecy or insisting that a decision must be made immediately. Discussing the situation with a trusted friend, family member, or colleague introduces a fresh perspective that is not influenced by the same emotional pressure.
A second opinion may reveal inconsistencies, unusual requests, or warning signs that are difficult to recognise when you are personally involved. Even a brief conversation can be enough to prevent an impulsive decision.
Psychology Behind It
Emotional pressure affects the person directly involved in the situation. Someone who is not experiencing the same fear or urgency is more likely to evaluate the information objectively and identify suspicious behaviour.³
5. Focus on Behaviour, Not Appearance
Professional logos, polished websites, convincing emails, and confident phone calls can all be copied. Rather than asking yourself whether something looks legitimate, focus on how the organisation is behaving.
Legitimate organisations rarely demand immediate payment through text messages, threaten account closure without warning, discourage independent verification, or pressure customers into making immediate decisions. If someone attempts to stop you from checking their claims, treat that behaviour as a warning sign rather than evidence that the situation is genuinely urgent.
Psychology Behind It
Scammers rely on superficial cues such as authority, professionalism, urgency, and social proof to create credibility. Evaluating behaviour instead of appearance reduces the influence of these persuasive techniques and encourages more deliberate decision-making.²⁴
The Most Powerful Defence
No one is completely immune to scams. Intelligence, education, and experience do not eliminate the psychological shortcuts that help us navigate everyday life. However, understanding how these shortcuts work makes them much easier to recognise.
The goal is not to become suspicious of everyone it is to become aware of when someone may be deliberately influencing the way you think. By slowing down, verifying information independently, recognising emotional pressure, and understanding the psychology behind persuasion, you become far less vulnerable to manipulation and far more confident in your own decision-making.
References:
1.Krämer, Walter. “Kahneman, D. (2011): Thinking, Fast and Slow.” Statistical Papers, vol. 55, no. 3, May 2013, p. 915. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00362-013-0533-y.
2. Cialdini, R. B. (2021). Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion (New and Expanded ed.). Harper Business.
3. Boewles, Joseph E. “Sifat-sifat Fisis Dan Geoteknis Tanah (Mekanika Tanah) / Joseph E. Bowles ; Alih Bahasa Johan Kelanaputra Hainim ; Editor Yani Sianipar.” Frontiers in Psychology, vol. 1993, no. 1993, Jan. 1993, pp. 1–99. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01755.
4. Yao, Y., Zheng, K., Wu, B., Wu, C., Gao, J., Wang, J., & Yang, M. (2025). The Psychological Manipulation of Phishing Emails: A Cognitive Bias approach. Computers, Materials & Continua/Computers, Materials & Continua (Print), 85(3), 4753–4776. https://doi.org/10.32604/cmc.2025.065059